TRAINING TRANSLATORS: FROM GENERAL REQUIREMENTS TO PARTICULAR APPROACHES

This article deals with some aspects of teaching translation. This question has not received much attention not only in Ukraine, but in Translation Studies as a whole. The present study illustrates how linguistic and cultural divergences between source and target texts complicate the process of translation. The paper also investigates the concept of translator’s competence and emphasises the main professional skills of a good translator. The author analyses the most evident challenges of translation process, which are likely to provide a small clue for better teaching translation and provides some references to didactic approaches of the translation process, suggested by different authors. The article is composed of four main parts. The first part regards to the representation of the role of translator nowadays, as well as the complexity of the translation process. The second part briefly examines some translation difficulties, caused by linguistic and cultural differences between source and target texts. Linguistic and cultural divergences between French and Ukrainian texts are studied on the material of translation into Ukrainian “In search of a lost time” by M. Proust. The third part is a brief overview of translator’s competence. The article states that translator’s competence consists of different subcompetences, namely: linguistic, extra-linguistic, translation sub-competence and psycho-physiological one. The fourth part focuses on some approaches to translators’ training. Methods and activities recommended by professionals engaged in the education of future translators are described.


Introduction
The increased need for translation is indisputable nowadays responding to the demands of modern civilisation and period of world globalisation.From the ancient Egypt, where for the first time the interpreters were mentioned, translation remains an important means of bilingual ∕ multi-lingual and crosscultural communication among people from different linguo-cultural areas.Metaphoric comparison of translation to "the window to another world" by A. Fedorov (1983) is relevant at this time because of the cognitive function of translation.This function facilitates cultural, technological, scientific circulation of information and assists the progress of intercultural interaction.Besides, literary translation plays an important role in the development of target literature and culture.The style and genre evolution is due to the translation, as well as borrowing of different expression means.
The importance of translation in modern society highlights the crucial role of the translator as languages, cultures and nations mediator.Thereby, while training future translators, we should take into consideration not only foreign language(s) learning, but also cultural competence acquisition, translation strategies and procedure as well.Moreover, while training translators, we should take into account the difficulties of translation process as well as the core translation skills and competences.
The didactics of translation lacks investigations not only on experimental studies, but on didactic approaches of preparing future translators / interpreters of different languages and different types of texts.The systematic search for the different methods and techniques of teaching future translators reckoning with the concept of translator's competence and the main professional skills of a good translator is urgent and imperative.That is why the issue of training translators was chosen as a subject for this article.
The aim of this paper is to define the difficulties in translation process caused by linguistic and cultural divergences between source and target texts on the material of Ukrainian translation of M. Proust's psychological prose; to specify the concept of translator's competence and reveal the peculiarities of developing professional competence of future translators.

Methods
Analysis and synthesis are two main methods of research; the supplementary ones are presented by descriptive method, method of componential analysis, method of distributional analysis, method of translational analysis, method of functional and pragmatic analysis, method of comparative analysis of source and target texts.

Results and discussion
There are a lot of discussions and speculations about translation difficulties and different types of literary and non-literary translation.According to current researchers, translation is considered to be a particular kind of interlingual and cross-cultural communication (Ballard, 2005;Cherednychenko, 2007;Demetska, 2007;Kaladi, 2005;Kyiak, 2006;Mounin, 1963) etc.Thus, the complexity of translation lies in linguistic and cultural difficulties causing translator's errors.

Linguistic divergences between source and target texts
First of all, differences between languages are related to the linguistic system, namely lexical and grammatical systems.An example of this is verbal periphrasis typical for French, but having no equivalent in Ukrainian.In fact, combination paraître (seem) + infinitif means supposition, doubtfulness.In order to keep the idea of possibility and probability of something the translator uses Ukrainian adverb мабуть (perhaps): les dernières oeuvres de Vinteuil m'avaient paru synthétiser (Proust, 1954, p. 221) -усе те, що, мабуть, утілили в собі останні Вентейлеві опуси (Prust, 2002, p. 160).
The same is true concerning lexical equivalents.They differentiate by the amount of information they contain.For example, French noun paquet (packet) contrary to its Ukrainian equivalent пакет (packet) should mean batch, block, bunch, bundle, parcel.The word combination un paquet ficélé (tied packet) is translated into Ukrainian as коробочка (a little box).
Concerning the grammatical system, an example of French Passé immédiat dans le passé should be given.The tense expresses the idea of something being recently occurred before another action in the past, which is illustrated by the following example: la félicité que je venais d'éprouver -блаженство, відчуте в цю мить.The proper meaning of the original message is rendered by lexical meaning, especially by addition of a nominative construction -в цю мить (at this moment).
Another disputable issue regarding linguistic differences concerns stylistic features of source and target texts.A translator should be aware of characteristic features of different types of texts in both languages.

Cultural divergences between source and target texts
Culture is a complex unity, which includes knowledge, belief, art, moral laws, customs, and other capabilities or habits acquired by individual as a member of the society (Tylor, 1871, p. 1).People of a particular culture perceive different things from their own point of view and way of thinking.Cultural characteristics of a particular nation are reflected in its language by various language elements such as onomatopoeia, interjection, different realia, national phraseoligical units, international elements, sayings, proverbs, jokes, etc.The knowledge of a culture and such elements is crucial for successful translation.It can be observed on the example of French expression inviter en cure-dents (invite to toothpick) based on the special cultural situation which means invite smb.for a desert or a coffee at the end of the reception.This expression had changed in Ukrainian translation by another situation denoting the end of the meeting -"шапкобрання": "qu'elle n'avait invité qu'en "cure-dents" (Proust, 1970, p. 261) -якого вона запросила лише на "шапкобрання" (Proust, 1997, p. 218).
Translators should acquire understanding and become aware of such elements reflecting the cultural peculiarities and choose an adequate analogue in the target language, therefore, the most renowned translation theorists agree with the fact that a translator is a cultural mediator (Alexseeva, 2008;Ballard, 2005;Demetska, 2007;Kaladi, 2005;Kyiak, 2005;Mounin, 1963;Cherednychenko, 2007 etc.).Lingo-cultural adaptation is an important creative component of interlingua and intercultural communication.Lingo-cultural adaptation aims to recreate author's conception and to provide adequate translation (Sopyliuk, 2012, p. 74).

Translator competence
Nowadays, there is no doubt that a translator plays a crucial role and is characterised by multidisciplinary nature.On the one hand, a translator is an interpreter and mediator between two languages and cultures; on the other hand, he/she may act as a narrator, a writer, a proof-reader or an editor.Consequently, this multifunctional translator's role determines a wide range of skills forming a translator's competence.
"Translation competence is the underlying system of knowledge needed to translate.It includes declarative and procedural knowledge, but procedural knowledge is predominant.It consists of the ability to carry out the transfer process from the comprehension of the source text to the re-expression of the target text, taking into account the purpose of the translation and the characteristics of the target readers."(PACTE, 2003) It is argued that a translator needs not only an excellent linguistic competence, but also a kind of extralinguistic competence.This idea is mentioned by Delisle (1980) who states that "linguistic competence is a necessary condition, but not sufficient for the professional translation practice" (p.235).Taking different researcher's point of view into consideration, we distinguish linguistic, extra-linguistic, translation and psycho-physiological sub-competence.

Linguistic sub-competence
Linguistic component of translator competence is considered to be as a good knowledge of both the source language and the target language.Linguistic component of translator competence contributes decoding and conveying the source message to the target language with the help of linguistic and textual means.
The bilingual sub-competence is made up of pragmatic, socio-linguistic, textual, grammatical and lexical knowledge of two languages.Pragmatic knowledge is a kind of comprehension of pragmatic conventions needed to carry out language acts that are acceptable in a given context.They make it possible to use language means to express and understand linguistic functions and speech acts.Socio-linguistic knowledge is a comprehension of socio-linguistic conventions needed to carry out language acts that are acceptable in a given context.This includes knowledge of language registers and dialects.Textual knowledge is a comprehension of texture (coherence and cohesion mechanisms) and of different genres.Grammatical-lexical knowledge is comprehension of vocabulary, morphology, syntax and phonology/graphologie (PACTE, 2003).
According to Cherednychenko (2007), an excellent knowledge of two languages facilitates the ability to switch from one language to another in written and oral form (p. 233).Furthermore, according to the author's opinion, linguistic competence develops skills of using and operating different types of lexicogrammatic transformations in order to avoid interference in translation.

Extra-linguistic sub-competence
Extra-linguistic sub-competence consists of awareness of source and target culture.Cherednychenko (2007) says that translator's bilingualism must be accompanied by biculturalism (p.232).Translator should possess short-term and a long-term sociocultural knowledge.
In a source text, sociolinguistic information should be expressed by different types of realia.Zorivchak (1989) understands realia as mono-or polilexemic units, lexical meaning of which includes traditionally established complex of ethnocultural information which is alien to the objective reality of target language and which is realised only in frames of a binary opposition (p.189).The author distinguishes the following types of realia: ethnographic realia of everyday life (sauce gribiche from French, чебуреки from Ukrainian); onomastic realia (la Petite Fadette, la Cathédrale de Chartres from French); geographic realia (un lophophore from French, степ from Ukrainian); administrative (département from French, губернія from Ukrainian), associative (un cheval (horse) in French means hard-working person, ours (bear)unsociable person), historical realia (жупан, опришки from Ukrainian).The ethnospecific phraseological units are also included in realia (e.g.ni figue ni raisin, tirer sur la corde from French).These elements are often marked as untranslatable because of the complication and difficulties with their translation.
For that reason, translators ought to develop sociocultural knowledge and encyclopedic knowledge concerning the world in general.Besides, one acting in a particular domain needs to possess professional knowledge in a particular sphere (arts, history, politics, economy, law, medicine, etc).
Lectures in history, art, literature and civilisation are aimed at providing extra-linguistic competence, but students majoring in the science of translation should be aspired towards self-perfection by reading different types of literary texts and publicist as well.Developing the linguistic and extra-linguistic components of translator competence could help to avoid the "false sense" considered to be the most frequent type of translator's errors (Garidel, 2014).

Translation sub-competence
Translation sub-competence is a comprehension of the way in which translation process functioning, its strategies, techniques, different types of translation issues and their solutions.
Domestic translation scholars developed a considerable theory of translation techniques.They used the term "transformations" while analysing translation solutions of source text conveying by means of the target language.Barkhudarov (1975) distinguishes addition, omission and replacement within translation transformations (p. 190-230).
3. Phraselogical replacement is the process of replacement of source language lexemes and lexical units by elements with different denotative meaning in order to provide an adequate perception of the target text: …que ses doigts brûlent d'en palper les qualités (Proust, 1954, p. 333) …і пальці в нього аж сверблять, аби його помацати (Proust, 1997, p. 250).Some researchers distinguish instrumental competence, which is related to the use of documentation sources, information and communication technologies applied to translation: dictionaries of all kinds, encyclopedias, grammar books, style books, parallel texts, electronic corpora, etc.
Psycho-physiological components of translation competence are different types of cognitive and attitudinal components and psycho-motor mechanisms.They include: cognitive components: memory, attention, perception; attitudinal aspects: intellectual curiosity, perseverance, rigour, critical spirit and selfconfidence, knowledge of and confidence in one's own abilities, the ability to measure one's own abilities, motivation, etc; abilities such as creativity, logical reasoning, analysis and synthesis (PACTE, 2003).
As shown above, the multidisciplinary nature of translator's activity forms the complex system of translator's competence requiring linguistic, extra-linguistic, translation and psycho-physiological subcompetence.Therefore, pedagogical approaches to translation should take into account the multifunctional translator's role in modern society.

Some approaches to training translators
It is impossible to give answer and recipe to all situations in which student will be involved in his ∕ her future profession as a translator.However, specialists tend to give some useful hints to train translators (Jafari, 2013;Kuşçu, 2015;Pontes, 2016;Roskosa, 2016;Sibul, 2016;Zaripova, 2016;Źraka, 2007) etc.
For instance, using group work, students' cooperation and communication in the process of translation is considered to be a successful way of diversifying the process of translator training and ensuring an adequate and successful translation (Roskosa, 2016, p.250).
According to Zaripova (2016) learning and teaching foreign language should be aimed not only at memorising words and constructions of common language but also at analysing elements of languages for special purposes to be able to use them in some particular situations determined by specific data (Zaripova, 2016, p. 3167).Jafari (2013) brings out his ideas about how to teach translation by drawing the translation teacher's attention to innovative methods making learning process more effective and enhancing student's motivation.We find some activities worth exposing here: -Back translating.It is a standard way of checking the accuracy of a translation.All students are divided into groups of two; they are located behind each other.A short text is handed out to the students sitting on the front chair.They translate sentence by sentence and hand it to the next student.At the end of the class, students read out their translations to the audience and analyse how much of the original text had been lost.
-Domesticating and foreignisation.Students are divided into two teams and each team is also subdivided into smaller sub-groups.One team translates a text using the domestication-method, and the other team is asked to use foreignisation.At the end, these groups read their translations in order to expose the differences of these two approaches.
-Practising Scopos centred translation: class is divided into four groups, and each group follows translation rules applying to a specific text set up by another group.At the end of the class, each group reads out their translation variants and compares them with the requirements formulated by the other group.
-Translating according to the models: students are divided into several groups, each group has to analyse a source text and its translation in order to find the transformation according to various translation models set up by the theorists (Catford, 1965;Nida, 1964;Newmark, 2008;Vinay and Darblenet, 1978).
Moreover, teachers are recommended to teach different genres of translation through authentic materials (Kuşçu, 2015, p. 407) and develop competency in informative-communicative technologies and skills to properly interpret and navigate the flood of information in modern media, especially in the Internet (Sibul, 2016, p. 8198).
Finally, we would like to mention here some aspects of our experience of training future translators.Teaching translation from French to Ukrainian and vice versa at the Department of Roman Philology and Translation of Chernivtsi National University is considered to be a collaborative and communicative process, focused on a student and his individual characteristics.Students are involved in various types of written or oral translation such as simultaneous and consecutive interpreting.
The major factor determining the strategy of training written translation is genre of text being translated.In particular, teaching literary translation is based on detailed analysis of individual author's style and stylistic analysis of source text preceding the process of translation.Deliberation on contextual meaning of some challenging lexical elements and making students aware of cultural divergences between French and Ukrainian texts recipients is also proved to be rather efficient.Students' cooperation and communication in order to stimulate sharing knowledge, opinion, experience and ideas are also welcomed.Finally, students are suggested to compare their translations with translations done by professionals in order to analyse, assess, offer some changes and justify those changes.
At the same time, training the specialised translation is based on texts from different spheres requiring knowledge in specific areas.Translation processes of specialised texts are anteceded by identification of the source, the type of text, the register, the style, and other general information.The next step is reading with translation intention, it is a deep reading focused on consideration of terminology used in source text and other items causing translation difficulties.The translation is often accomplished in groups of two or three.A group discussion follows the translation process.Students try to explain their decision, to describe translation techniques and tools they have used like dictionaries or encyclopedias.Such approach develops student's linguistic taste, their critical capacity and their own way of evaluation.

Conclusions
In modern society, a translator plays an important role as a mediator between languages, cultures and nations.Linguistic and cultural divergences between source and target texts complicate the translation process.Thus, it is necessary to train future translators taking into account these differences.The translator's competence should consist of linguistic, extra-linguistic and translation sub-competences.Furthermore, developing core translator's competence should include psycho-physiological components of translation competence.Teachers of translation ought to select various approaches based on the different types of text analysis; deliberation of challenging lexical elements, collocations, terms and grammatical structures; commenting or group discussion of translation techniques and methods and others that help to make learning process more effective and enhance student's motivation.This study does not cover all features of didactics of translation.The didactic approaches to preparing future conference interpreters require further study and investigations.