STRUCTURAL AND SEMANTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF FOOD-RELATED NEOLOGISMS IN MODERN ENGLISH 27

The present article deals with an increasing number of words which have recently appeared in the English language due to the drastic changes in social, political, economic realms as well as science and technology. Constant technological and scientific progress as surely as active development of cultural, spiritual and everyday spheres of life may be a powerful stimulus for the continual enrichment of English lexicon. The English language is monthly enriched by new lexical units which are introduced into official dictionaries and thesauri in order to extend its vocabulary. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to provide comprehensive linguistic research of innovative food-related lexical units, collocations, expressions and notions as well as to observe productive word-building patterns used for coining new words. Firstly, we examine fundamental works on the subject of neology, neologisms and their word-formation types as a linguistic phenomenon. Secondly, the focus of attention is on structure and semantics of food-related coinages which have recently come into use. Moreover, we concentrate on blending as the most frequently occurring word-formation type used to create neologisms in the sphere of gastronomy and related domains. In addition, various types of lexical blends are discussed as well as their high degree of productivity. Finally, we make conclusions and suggestions for further linguistic investigations.


Introduction
Language is a dynamic system which possesses both fundamental vocabulary and inventory of words that enter and leave the language in the course of time. According to the Macmillan Dictionary, some new words are ephemeral, tied to cultural or technical concepts which fade in significance. Others stay the course, usually because they represent concepts which have become permanent features of society (Maxwell, 2006). As a matter of fact, an increase in the number of new words is caused by dramatic changes in social life, economics, international relations, cross-cultural interaction and computer-mediated communication. Recent discoveries in the sphere of science and technology demand new words to name new notions, concepts and ideas. Consequently, the everyday vocabulary of modern English is being constantly enlarged with the help of neologisms. Neologisms are newly-coined words, collocations or expressions which may be commonly used in everyday speech, but have not been fully assimilated into the language yet. Therefore, new coinages reflect the evolving nature of any natural language including English. As time goes by people create lexemes to express new concepts or ideas that were previously expressed by means of other words or use completely new words that may not have existed before.
It's worth mentioning that the phenomenon of neologisms has been discussed by numerous representatives of various linguistic trends and schools. As a matter of fact, several investigations are devoted to а comprehensive survey of neology as a whole in different languages (Aarts & McMahon, 2006;Brahina, 1973;Kubriakova, 2002), structure, semantics and pragmatics of newly-coined words in the English language (Andrusiak, 2003;Antiufeeva, 2004;Zhluktenko, 1983), major and minor word-building patterns used to create new lexical items (Vinogradov, 1977;Zatsnyi, 2007).
Experts in the sphere of linguistics (Enikeyeva, 2011;Levytskyi & Sheludko, 2009;Plag, 2018;Senkiv, 2016) admit that English neologisms are mainly coined according to the following principles: 1) Derivation -the most widely-used type of English word-formation (applet, monogamish, unfriend); 2) Clipping (hubby for husband, fave for favourite); 3) Compounding (fiddlestick, claptrap); 4) Conversion or zero-derivation (instagram -to instagram, google -to google); 5) Eponymy (wellington, boycott, sandwich); 6) Abbreviation (LOL, OMG, OMOV); 7) Loanwords (tycoon, sushi); 8) Onomatopeia (plow, barf, bang); 9) Reduplication (Willy-nilly); 10) Blending (staycation, infotainment) (AW; MWLD; OED; UD; WS). In recent linguistic studies, special attention is paid to blending as a dynamic type of English wordformation (Cannon, 2009;Fauconnier & Turner, 1996;Kemmer, 2006;Maliarchuk, 2015;Murzakov, 2013;Pound, 2013). Andy Bodle in his article presented in Guardian employs a vivid metaphor player in the town, referring to blending: "… today, when it comes to word formation, there's only one player in town: the portmanteau" (Bodle, 2016). It should be noted that blending may be defined as a word-forming process consisting in combining parts of two or more words to create a new word whose meaning is the combination of the original words. As a result of blending blends (amalgams, fusions) come into existence. Lexical blends comprise the class of "portmanteau" words first mentioned in Lewis Carroll's novel "Alice through the Looking-Glass" by the character Humpty Dumpty. Suzanne Kemmer (2006) makes an assertion that this term at that time was a transparent metaphor: a portmanteau was a nineteenth century piece of luggage consisting of two equal parts connected by a hinge. When closed, the two parts formed a functional unity designed for compactness and portability (p. 70).
The present research is aimed at analysing the variety of newly-coined words, word-combinations as well as trendy ideas and notions in the sphere of culinary art and related fields. Furthermore, we study blending as a productive type of word-formation as the main source of neologisms in the culinary sphere and try to prove its importance in modern English lexicology.

Data and Methodology
In the course of research 285 words, collocations and notions, which have recently appeared in English, were selected with the help of sampling method from the following lexicographic resources:  www.express.co.uk; www.niddk.nih.gov; www.nytimes.com; www.science.howstuffworks.com; www.draxe.com; www.massivephobia.com. The choice of methods employed in the present research is based on the aim, objectives and the collected data. Consequently, the methodology of the article presupposes the usage of the following linguistic methods: 1) structural (for establishing the morphemic structure and derivational potential of recently-coined lexical units in culinary and related spheres as well as examining blending as a productive type of modern English word-formation); 2) semantic (for figuring out lexical meanings of culinary-related lexicon under investigation); 3) systematisation and classification (for grouping of food-related coinages into particular categories according to the sphere of their usage).

Results and Discussion
In recent years culinary-related content has become increasingly popular due to its special symbolic meaning and semiotic power. According to Counihan & Esterik (1997), food touches everything. Food is the foundation of every economy. It is a central pawn in political strategies of states and households. Food marks social differences, boundaries, bonds and contradictions. Eating is an endlessly evolving enactment of gender, family, and community relationships (p. 1). In September 2018 the editors of Merriam-Webster added 25 new terms to the dictionary, 8 of which (iftar, gochujang, hangry, meet tooth, mise en place, mocktail, vegan diet, zoodle) (MWLD) are somehow associated with food and drinks, which proves the unique role of mesmerising world of gastronomy in different aspects of everyday life.
It's a well-known fact that eating and talking are universal human traits. Every healthy human being eats and talks; every society or group eats and talks. Both language and food are culturally dependent and vary according to factors such as gender, age, or situational context, or even lifestyle (Cornelia & Frobenius & Ley, 2013, p. 3). As a result, the term "culinary linguistics" emerged to describe the interconnection between language and food as universal concepts of mankind. These tendencies have popularised a number of new and already existed in the language collocations containing the noun FOOD (food baby, food ball, food bank, food borne, food box, food canal, food chain, food chopper, food color, food conversation, food cycle, food desert, food fight, food fish, food forest, food futurist, food gatherer, food grain, food insecurity, food dog, food miles, food pantry, food press, food processor, food pyramid, food security, food swamp, food stuff, food truck, food tube, food unit; ambient food, functional food, pharma food, slow food, white food), the adjective CULINARY (culinary art, culinary centrality, culinary competition, culinary delight, culinary excellence, culinary history, culinary purposes, culinary herbs, culinary traditions, culinary skills, culinary use),the adjective COOKING (cooking dinner, cooking facility, cooking food, cooking fuel, cooking garden, cooking housework, cooking oil, cooking method, cooking pot, cooking process, cooking skillet, cooking spray, cooking time, cooking utensils, cooking vegetable), the derivative element GASTRO (gastronome, gastronomist, gastrobrand, gastronaut, gastropub, gastroworld, gastrosexual) (OED; LET; LDCE) as key elements. In addition to this, one can also observe an increasing amount of words formed from the word FOOD by means of derivation as the commonest method of creating new words: foodie, foodoir, foodinger, foodless, foodlessness (MWLD; OED; LDCE; WS).
It's a common knowledge that nourishment is an indispensable part of our life reflecting the most archaic forms of physiological security and sensory pleasure. Eating well, a full stomach is still one of our main ways of achieving a state of euphoria (Counihan & Esterik, 1997, p. 208). It explains a great multiplicity of food-related collocations aiming to describe obesity dubbed a modern-day plague. Among them generation XXL (extremely overweight people), salad dodger (an overweight person who shuns healthy foods), fat tax (a tax imposed on foods that are deemed to be unhealthy, particularly those that contribute to obesity and other health problems) should be mentioned (WS).
In order to denote the unhealthy process of eating which inevitably leads to extra weight one can use neologisms passive overeating (or passive overconsumption) coined on analogy to passive smoking and autoeating: Saltiness is a taste that can be very desirable in foods. When combined with fat, salt can override the normal ability of fat to promote a feeling of fullness, leading to passive overconsumption. This could explain why salty, high-fat snack foods are so moreish; Nutritionists believe many people are obese not because they binge on fatty main meals but because they indulge in constant grazing throughout the day without even realising it. This pattern, dubbed "auto-eating", involves resorting to snacks and treats at the slightest indication of hunger (Brady, 2010).
Unfortunately, the obesity epidemic is gradually gaining grounds, which is reflected in a number of word-combinations and derivatives: auto-eater, auto-eating habits etc. These days we can differentiate between the following types of "eaters" devised by Tim Brady (2010), which underlines the escalating rate of the problem: 1. Auto-eater eats whether he feels hungry or not and without consciously deciding he needs food; 2. Chaotic eater has no routine to his dietary habits, frequently skips meals throughout the day and eats on the run. He may grab whatever is available at the time and sometimes is completely unaware of his unhealthy eating habits; 3. Emotional eater uses food as a crutch or as a distraction that stops him from confronting his feelings.
That's why it's often possible to plough through an entire packet of biscuits or family-size chocolate bars without even realising it; 4. Waste-not eater hates to see food left on a plate and will consume whatever is available whether he needs it or not; 5. Boredom eater -two out of three people admit they eat more when they have nothing else to occupy them. This makes it very difficult to keep track of how much you are consuming and gets the stomach used to a constant supply of food. 6. Restrictive eater regards food as either good or bad, scrutinising labels and weighing out portions meticulously (Brady, 2010). According to the analysis of recent data from 188 countries, conducted by an international consortium of researches led by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) at the University of Washington, 2.1 bn people are currently obese. Apart from being excessively overweight, a lot of people nowadays are even practising eating in one's automobile while driving. This phenomenon is verbalised by means of such expressions as dashboard dining, drive-time dining, one-handed dining (LET; UD). It's no surprise that junk food restaurants which offer this service (known as cup-holder restaurants, drive thru restaurants) (UD) are on the rise these days.
For the time being, obesity is considered to be a growing global problem because of a great number of genetically-modified components in food. In the English language, the notion of GM-food is often referred to as frankenfood (LDCE) derived from franken-(a combining form used before something that is a hybrid of disparate parts, and meaning "strange or frightening") + food. To get rid of extra weight people are presently resorting to bariatric surgery (gastro-intestinal surgery, weight loss surgery) (WS), which is gaining more and more popularity. This kind of medical treatment can be defined as weight-loss method used for people who have a body mass index of 40 or more. Surgery may also be an option for people with a BMI between 35 and 40 who have health problems related to obesity like heart disease or type 2 diabetes (Glossary, n.d.).
Over the last years, obesity has stopped to be an exclusively aesthetic problem and become a genuine worldwide epidemic. Despite different technological advances as well as medical innovations to fight extra weight, it has turned into global trouble known as globesity (UD). The blend-word globesity is made up of an initial part of the first splinter (gl-) and a base word (obesity). Some people are so obsessed with their fear of gaining extra weight that are gradually developing obesophobia (What is obesophobia?). This lexical blend consists of a reduced initial part of the first splinter (obes-) and a base word (phobia). According to the Internet site www.massivephobia.com, obesophobia also called pocrescophobia is the irrational fear of obesity or an overwhelming fear of becoming fat. Those afflicted are obsessed with the negative effects excessive fat could have on their health. In extreme cases, this can exhibit as eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia. Obesophobia is closely related to cibophobia (WS), which is the fear of food. This medical and psychological disorder derived its name from the Greek word "obeso" meaning "fat" and the word "phobia" which comes from Greek "phóbos" meaning "fear". Despite widespread publicity, parents increasingly seem to be turning a blind eye as their children put on weight. Dr. David Katz, the director of Yale's Prevention Research Center, has suggested a word for this parents' ignorance -oblivobesity (Hoffman, 2015).
Within the last decade trying to combat this crucial eating disturbance a lot of people stick to various diets in pursuit of slim figures and better health. It is a truism that diets serve different functions, among which losing weight, gaining weight, lowering cholesterol level, living a long and healthy life and others. As a result of these tendencies in present-day English different terms are appearing to denote people practising diets to prevent ailing conditions:  Bacetarian -a person who eats only bacon but no other meat (blending of bacon + -tarian);  Breakfastarian -a person who recognises the superiority of breakfast over other meals (blending of breakfast + -arian);  Climatarian -a person whose diet consists primarily of foods that do not contribute to humaninduced climate change (blending of climate + -arian);  Demitarian -a person who cuts his meat consumption in half (blending of demi (half) + -tarian);  Flexitarian -a person who sometimes eats meat or fish (blending of flexible + -tarian);  Fruitarian -a person who prefers fruit to any other food (blending of fruit + -arian);  Pescetarian -a person who supplements a vegetarian diet with fish (blending of pesce (fish) +tarian);  Pollotarian -a person who supplements a vegetarian diet with poultry (blending of pollo (chicken) + -tarian);  Locavore -a person whose diet consists only or particularly of locally grown or produced food (blending of local + -vore) (AW; MWLD; WS).
In terms of word-building, the above mentioned lexemes are coined according to the identical pattern: a full word is followed by a Latin suffixes -(t)arian and -vore. As a matter of fact, these neologisms were formed by means of lexical blending as well, which proves its high degree of productivity in modern English. Veganism is nowadays described as a trendy lifestyle due to a mounting number of food-and health-conscious consumers. Another group of recently-coined words denoting this phenomenon is as follows:  Freegan -a person, usually a vegan, who consumes only food that is obtained by foraging, most often in the garbages of restaurants, grocery stores, and other retailers (blending of free followed by a splinter gan from a base word vegan);  Gluten freegan -a person who consumes a gluten-free, vegan diet;  Rawist -a person who eats only unprocessed, unheated, and uncooked food, especially organic fruits, nuts, vegetables, and grains (blending of raw + foodist) (UD; WS).
Though the problems associated with different nutritional disorders are still burning, a lot of people are driven by the desire to have healthier, more sustainable lives. In light of this, today relatively new fad in gastroworld is becoming extremely popular. This issue is verbalised by means of molecular-related lexicon (e.g. molecular cuisine, molecular gastronomy, molecular cooking, molecular cookery) (OED). This state-ofthe-art tendency in the culinary world was born from the fusion of food sciences and gastronomic arts. The discipline enables you to expand the limits of your creativity by modifying the appearance and texture of food. Thanks to some basic techniques, you will effortlessly learn how to convert liquids into a mousse or how to create flavorful pearls that will explode in your mouth! During its inception, molecular gastronomy was reserved for great chefs but nowadays, it's accessible to everyone and fully demystified. The idea is far from being new since it was established in 1988 by Hervé This and Nickolas Kurti. Molecular gastronomy focuses primarily on the application of scientific advanced to culinary processes on the level of domestic and restaurant cooking, an area that had historically relied on tradition. While giving the name to a new trend in gastronomy, its founding fathers took as a basis the definition of gastronomy suggested by Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, the author of "Physiologie du goût" ("The Physiology of Taste"). The attribute molecular was added later to define a branch of science, which includes elements of physics, chemistry, and biology. These days molecular gastronomy seeks to generate new knowledge on the basis of such sciences as chemistry and physics as well as to develop brand-new ways of cooking. Up-to-the-minute innovations in the domain of molecular culinary contributed to the emergence of new coinages in the English language. Among derivatives and collocations, which are frequently used nowadays, the following should be pointed out: molecular gastronomist, molecular gastronomy-inspired meal, molecular gastronomy hotspot, molecular gastronomy programs, molecular cooking technique (Harris, n.d.) Another fashionable trend, which is likely to herald changes in molecular gastronomy, is molecular mixology (WS). This brand-new approach in beverage industry may be defined as a practice of mixing drinks using the analysis and techniques found in science to experiment with cocktail ingredients on the molecular level. In a nutshell, it is an application of the principles of molecular gastronomy to the mixing of alcoholic drinks. According to 2018 survey, the invention designed to influence the future of innovations in the food sector is superfood(s) or anti-ageing food(s):"Superfoods do more than just help you meet your vitamin and mineral needs or aid in shedding a few extra pounds when it comes time for swimsuit season. In fact, these foods can help you achieve better health, prevent chronic disease, and improve the way you feel day in and day out -and they're some of the top anti-ageing foods around" (Link, 2017). Therefore, present-day English witnesses a growing number of lexemes with -SUPER element, such as superberry, superfruit, supergrain, supernuts (AW) etc. It goes without saying that the food industry has recently undergone impressive alterations due to the latest changes in science and technology. Modern consumers are increasingly looking for affordable but organic food free from additives, preservatives and stabilisers. Consequently, chefs are trying to devise brand-new healthy dishes in order to satisfy consumer demands.

Conclusions
Nowadays the English language is evolving at a rapid rate so that dictionaries and thesauri are updated on a monthly basis in order to keep up. Therefore, neology appears a much-debated topic in modern linguistics owing to the constant growth of lexical innovations in different domains of social life. Identifying and documenting the latest coinages in the sphere of food, culinary art and related fields may be a good challenge for lexicographers, whose aim is to compose dictionaries of new words.
The food we consume gives our bodies the materials to function properly. Being the focal point of health and well-being, nutritional culture has always played the pivotal role in the life of the society. In this article, we have presented a detailed analysis of the food-related vocabulary of the recent decade, which demonstrates a wide repertoire of words, word-combinations, expressions, ideas and notions to denote both healthy and unhealthy eating habits. The research also focused on the most frequently-used type of wordformation to create neologisms in the sphere of gastronomy. For the time being the combination of parts of existing words is a common process in the formation of neologisms in the food sphere. This phenomenon, often referred to as blending, is a popular word-forming pattern, which has been in evidence throughout the centuries. Undoubtedly, lexical blending is believed to be an important source of vocabulary enrichment together with derivation and compounding.
Our future research will be devoted to other productive word-forming patterns (derivation, compounding, conversion, acronymy, back-formation) to coin new lexical units. Moreover, neological potential of the present-day English language in various spheres (IT, business, culture, science, technology, tourism) may be of particular interest in English neology, lexicology and lexicography.